A period between the age of 11 to 19 years is referred to as the period of adolescence. During this period, adolescent often indulges in exploratory self-analysis and self-evaluation. He or she searches for his/her identity: “Who am I?”.

Search of Identity in Adolescence: 

• This search involves new way of thinking about oneself which emerges during adolescence. This process involves the exploration and testing of alternative ideas, beliefs and behaviors.
• The identity search is also greatly affected by parents, peers, school and neighborhoods.
• This search for identity begins with the child's awareness that he is separate and unique individual. He recognizes that he is not the same as others in his group or surroundings.
• At the age of adolescence, a child does not want to be defined by his parents. The child wants to break his childhood identity attached with his parents, and wants an independent identity.
• The choices made by the adolescents are often affected by their role models. 

What is Identity Crisis?

Erikson states that an identity crisis is a time of intensive analysis and exploration of different ways of looking at oneself. The struggle between the feelings of identity versus role confusion is the point of identity crisis.

James Marcia did further work on Erikson's theory. According to him, identity involves the adoption of: (i) Sexual Orientation.

(ii) Set of values and deals

(ii) A vocational direction 

 In the interviews with young people, Marcia asked the participant. 

(i) Whether he had established a commitment to an occupation and     ideology. 

(ii) Whether he had experienced or was experiencing a decision-making period?

On the basis of the replies to the above, following four statuses were indicated by James Marcia: 

(1) Foreclosure: Some adolescents make a commitment to an occupational future. They may have conformed to the expectations of their parents and peers without exploring alternative options. For example, in India, many adolescents listen to their parents who want them to be doctors or IIT engineers. Now, without exploring whether they have aptitude for better careers, they decide to go with their parental wish.

Apart from vocation, some adolescents make commitment to certain political ideologies and religious or ethnical values on the basis of views of their parents and peers without exploring or thinking over all the available options. Most of the adolescents are also committed about their sexual orientation as a heterosexual, homosexual, lesbian or asexual or bisexual.

The adolescents in the above category do not face any identity crisis as there is no evaluation self-exploration or self- evaluation. 

(2) Diffusion: In this status are the adolescents who have neither made a commitment nor they have tried to explore the options available to them. They have not made any attempt to do so too.

As we often see, many adolescents think that they will take an appropriate decision about their vocation or other values and beliefs after passing out of the college.

The adolescents with the status of diffusion too do not experience any identity crisis.

(3)Moratorium: In this status are the adolescents who are still exploring various alternatives but they have not yet made a decision. They have however gone ahead with the process of identity formation and are experiencing identity crisis.

(4) Achievement: In this status are the adolescents who have faced the identity crisis but have finally made the decision about their identity in the matter of vocation, values or sexual orientation.

To sum up, a well-developed identity gives a sense of one's strength, weaknesses and individual uniqueness while a person with less defined identity is not able to define his strength and weaknesses and does not have well-articulated self-concept.

Need for treatment of Identity Crises in Some Cases:

If the identity crisis is leading to distress and is interfering with the day-to-day functioning of a child, professional help may be needed as under:

• Psychotherapy:  Sometimes a therapy may be needed to address some underlying illness which may be contributing to abnormal degree of stress caused due to identity crisis. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) may be of help in such cases.
• Group Therapy: Group therapy can also be useful for dealing will abnormal stress amongst of group of adolescents due to identity crisis.
• Medication: If the identity crisis is accompanied by anxiety or depression, anti-anxiety or anti-depressants, as suitable, may be prescribed by a doctor.

(a) Assisting the student in self-understanding; 

(b) Assisting him in making intelligent choices; 

(c) Teaching the art of making adjustments in life.

Present status of School Guidance & Counselling:

Presently the guidance and counselling programmes are generally available to those students who have some problem and approach the counsellor directly or indirectly, or are sent to such counselor by the class teacher or the principal. The beneficiaries are mostly students of secondary or senior secondary classes. There are hardly any comprehensive guidance programmes available to all the students in general. 

Development of School Guidance & Counselling:

There is a need to develop guidance and counselling programmes in India keeping in view the specific requirements of students at different stages in their school life as each stage has different focus and objectives. 

Guidance at Different stages of Education:

There are three stages so far as guidance at school is concerned: 

(a) Elementary and Middle Stage: The focus is on developmental and preventive guidance with the objective of creating self awareness as well as career-awareness amongst the students. Expected Outcomes are skills, attitude and value development.

(b) Secondary Stage: Guidance at this stage is preventive in nature and aims at self and career understanding. The outcome expected is identification of personal and career goals.

(c) Senior Secondary Stage: The focus is on remedial guidance with the objective of achieving self as well as career identity. The expected outcome is capability to take self and career-related decisions.

The broader objective of guidance at school is to develop and improve competencies, skills and attitudes.

Components of Guidance & Counselling at School

 The essential components of guidance and counselling programme at school are as under:

(1) Individual Planning: The purpose of this component is to assist the students to plan, monitor and manage their own personal development. Self- appraisal and planning for the career is one of the goal of such planning.

(2) School guidance and counselling Curriculum: The curriculum aims at providing knowledge and life skills to the students. It emphasizes on decision-making, self-knowledge, career exploration and its development. The areas mainly included in the Curriculum are:

(i) Learning to Live: It refers to understanding and appreciating about a person himself, his home and family, developing a sense of community and capability to set goals and make decisions. 

(ii) Learning to Learn: This area refers to developing a spirit of enquiry, to explore and experiment, and also innovate through learning, knowledge and experience.

(iii) Learning to Work: This factor refers to exploring one's own aptitudes towards a career, learning relationship become education and work, and knowing how we can together as a team and as a community. The basic purpose is to equip a person to get gainful vocation.

Curriculum is delivered through (i) Classroom activities, (ii) Group activities. and (iii) Parent education. 

(3) Responsive Services: Responsive services are an important component of guidance and counselling programmes, and facilitate personal, social, educational and career growth of the school students. Responsive services include preventive, developmental and remedial counselling apart from consultation and referral services. While counselling is either individual or in groups, consultation is with teachers, parents and other experts. Referral is made to other professional or programmes. 

(4) Counselling Services:  Personal development and decision-making abilities are positively impacted by counselling services. Self-understanding, self-knowledge and knowledge of environment are important components of counselling services. This service primarily offers the clients a chance to make decisions and solve problems. Counselling service recognizes the uniqueness of the individual. Classroom teaching alone does not satisfy the developmental needs of a student or equip him to deal with the problems and complexities of life.

(5) Referral Services: Sometimes a student is in such a problem that a well-trained skilled professional is required to deal with his/her problem, and for such cases there is a need for a network of referral services which may include psychiatrists, psychologists and social work organizations etc.

(6) Consultation Services: The counselors or teachers must enter into mutual consultation with parents, subject teachers and hostel staff etc. to know if there has been any change in student's behaviour so that timely action may be taken to remedy the situation.

 (7) Appraisal: The purpose of this service is to gather personal information about a student, and assist him/her to understand himself/herself better. It also provides essential information about the student to his counselor or teacher to enable them to take appropriate steps to help the student as may be needed.

(8) Placement and follow up: All students need guidance to achieve their career goals, particularly in the matter of selection of subjects to study, and advice which will enable them to continue their studies after school for adopting a particular career. The interest, aptitude and career motivations of the student need to be thoroughly examined to give him guidance in this regard.

(9) Systems Support Programmes: Like any other programme, a comprehensive guidance and counselling programme also needs support systems such as resources and facilities, finance and policy support. Such a support system should be kept in mind while designing any guidance and counselling programme.

(10) Research and Effectiveness Assessment: Research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of any guidance and counselling system. Teachers and counselors can update their skills on the basis of a system of assessment and evaluation so that such a porgramme runs efficiently and effectively.

Prenatal period refers to the period from conception to the birth of a child. It starts with a male sex cell called 'sperm' entering the female sex cell called 'ovum’. Conception is the stage of fertilization of the ovum.

Prenatal period is nine calendar months or ten lunar months of 28 days each. This period may vary between 180 days to 334 days in some cases. Average length of prenatal period is 266 days. 

Prenatal development is divided into three stages: (1) Period of Zygote, (ii) Period of Embryo, and (iii) Period of Fetus. These periods are discussed below:

(a) Zygote Period: (Fertilization to end of 2nd Weeks)

Zygote is formed by the male sperm entering the female ovum and its fertilization. It has the genetic material from the father as well as mother yet it does not exactly remember either of them. Zygote looks like unfertilized egg only but it has 46 chromosomes instead of 23 chromosomes which the egg has. These 46 chromosomes are the result of joining of 23 chromosomes from the sperm and the rest 23 from the ovum. Within 2 days after the sperm unites the ovum, Zygote divides into two cells. These two cells get divided repeatedly.

(b) Embryo Period (End of 2nd Week to end of 2nd lunar month)

Gradually, the embryo develops into a miniature human being. This stage, starts from the second week of conception and continues up to the end of second lunar month or until it is 1.2 inches in length. During this period, the cells of the embryo not only multiply but also start taking specific functions. This process is called ‘differentiation’.

 It is during this period that the growing fetus is most susceptible to damage from external forces like viral infection, x-rays and poor nutrition. Most of the development problems happen during this period. Quite often, kidney and hearing problems originate in this period.

(c) Fetus Period (End of 2nd lunar month to birth)

By 9th to 12th week, all organs and structures to be found in the baby get developed. By 13th to 16th week, fetus makes active movements including sucking and swallowing some amniotic fluid. Heart has 120-150 beats per minute in this period From 17th to 20th week, eyebrows and lashes appear. Nails also start appearing. Footprints and finger print formation happens in 21st to 24th week. Brain and nervous systems show development in 25th to 28th week. In 29th to 32nd week, journey of development towards an independent life starts. By 38th week, fetus is considered full term. 

Other Characteristics Prenatal Period:

(1) Prenatal period is the shortest period in the lifespan development which covers a period of 9 calendar months or 10 lunar months.

(2) Prenatal growth is heavily influenced by hereditary factors and also affects the later life span development.

(3) Development of hereditary potentials can be affected by the favorable or unfavorable conditions of the mother's body. Environmental factors may adversely affect the prenatal development.

(4) Sex of the baby is fixed at the time of conception.

(5) Child grows from a microscopically small cell to an infant weighing 7 pounds during this period.

(6) Prenatal period is most hazardous as compared to other periods in life span development as external factors may have very damaging effect on prenatal development as well as later life.

Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development: 

Following are the environmental influences which can affect prenatal development:

1. Diseases in mother: If mother is suffering from disease(s), child development in his later life can be greatly affected. For example, a mother suffering from German measles (or rubella) or diabetes is likely to give birth to a child who may have congenital malformations. 

2. Age the mother: There is a high risk of infant defect, prematurity and infant death if the mother is in high ago bracket. In older women, ovum is  likely to be affected by aging or exposure to chemicals, drugs and other harmful agents. Similarly, if the mother is too young (below 18 years), the reproductive organs may not be well-developed and can adversely affect the child throughout his life span. 

3. Diet and Nutrition of the mother: As the mother is the only source of nutrition for the unborn child, any deficiency in the necessary proteins, fats, carbohydrates rand mineral etc. may adversely affect the new born and may lead to life-long physiological complications in the child. As most of the fetus's growth happens in the third trimester, any deficiency in food at this stage will not only affect the unborn child but may also increase the mother's vulnerability to pregnancy complications and diseases.

4. Stress in the mother: Maternal stress is believed to have extremely harmful effect on the prenatal-development of the unborn child. Emotional acts lead to the secretion of hormones which pass through placenta and affect the child. It has been found in a study that high level of anxiety in mother can result in motor deficiency in child.

5. Drugs & Chemicals: It is necessary to avoid chemicals and drugs (except those recommended by a doctor) during pregnancy as these can adversely affect the growth of the child. Even the common use drugs, sold over the counter, like aspirin or pain killers can leave everlasting adverse impact on the child. Alcohol use and tobacco smoking by the mother is known to lead to complications in prenatal development. 

6. Radiation: A serious damage can be caused to fetus by radiation. Sometimes the therapeutic radiation, if administered without due care, can cause grievous harm or even abortion. The natural radiation in the area where the pregnant woman works or resides can also have similar adverse effects. 

7. Abortion: Pregnancy can get terminated due to natural causes as well as there can be medical termination of pregnancy. In India, Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, 1971 legalizes abortions up to 20 weeks old fetus but if the woman's life can be endangered by child birth, pregnancy can be terminated even after 20 weeks. 

8. Rh. Incompatibility: We all have a blood type (O, A, B, and AB). It can be Rh+ or Rh-. If father has Rh+ and mother has Rh- and the unborn child develops Rh+, there can be a serious problem as the mother's system may manufacture antibodies to ward off foreign Rh protein. These antibodies can destroy child's red blood cells, and disability can cause death or intellectual disability.

Solution focused counseling is a therapy which focuses on solution finding rather than looking at the history of the problem. Most of the other counseling techniques focus on problems and see the client as the creator of those problems. But solution-focused counseling takes a positive approach so far as the client is concerned, and puts emphasis on solution rather than the causes of the problem. 

Key positive Assumptions of Solution Focused Counseling 

(1) If it works, do more of it. If it does not work, do something different: We adopt a pragmatic approach in this type of counselling. We try a solution and if it does not work, we move on to another solution.

(2) Every client is unique, resourceful and capable of changing: Each client has his unique circumstances, capabilities, goals and resources. This approach aims at encouraging the client to recognize and apply his unique strengths and resources towards achieving his goal.

(3) Co-operative relationships enhance solutions: Counsellor and client relationship or cooperation holds the key of success in solution-focused therapy. Effective counselling relationships are made on a foundation on mutual respect and understanding between the counsellor and the client. 

(4) Client Feedback improves outcome: It is a key assumption of Solution Focused Counseling that apart from co-operative and accountable relationship, obtaining formal feedback from the client increases the effectiveness of this counselling in a material way. 

(5) No Problem is constant: There are always fluctuations in the rate and intensity of any problem. Solution-focused counsellor may ask the client to seek fluctuations and explore the outcomes. This process creates the possibility of finding more solutions to the problem and experimenting with these solutions to find a sustainable and most effective solution.

(6) Big Problems do not always require big solutions: It is a primary assumption of solution-focused counseling that one small change in any part of the problem system can bring about significant changes which may lead to the ultimate solution of the problem. The counsellor's job is to identify the small changes that can start a chain reaction to bring about more changes which result in solving the problem.

Cognitive Behavior Modification approach was propounded by Donald Meichenbaum. This approach aims at altering self-talk and life narrative to promote positive behavior. 

A traditional example is of Amande who is a girl who was tormented with quilt and shame over being a victim of several years rape in her early teens. She again and again tells herself that she is unworthy and dirty. Due to this belief, all her relationships are abusive in nature and she tends to stay in them on the belief that she deserves nothing better. She did not respect herself, so the men whom she dated too did not respect her. Following the Cognitive Behavior therapy, her counselor assisted her in changing her belief about herself and turning herself into a positive person. This approach transformed her.

So, the Cognitive Behaviors Modification (CBM) is an approach to cognitive- behavioral therapy that focuses on changing negative self-talk and life narrative to a positive self-talk. The basic idea behind this approach is that negative self-talk can reflect in a person's behavior. In simpler terms, bad thoughts lead to bad actions, which in turn lead to bad outcomes. The goal of Cognitive Behavior Modification is to change a person's self-talk life narration from negative to positive.

Techniques of Cognitive Behavior Modification:

There are basically three main techniques of Cognitive Behavioral Modification. 

1. Self- Instructional Technique 

2. Stress Innoculation Technique 

3. Self-Management Technique 

Self-Instructional Technique: 

We engage in self-talk, and the nature of self-talk affects our behavior. Faulty and irrational self-talk results in anxiety, fear, stress and other emotional problem. In self-instructional training, the client is taught to keep track of self-statements which are negative or destructive. He is then given homework assignments and practice to substitute such negative self-talk with a positive one. 

In this process, there are four stages:

(a) First, the client is made aware of the negative self-talk going on within him.

(b) Second, the client is made to realize how his negative self-talk is leading to his fear, anxiety and other emotional problems. 

(c) Third, the client himself identifies the positive self-talk he needs to do in place of negative self-talk. 

(d) Fourth, the client is given training to make the positive self-talk a part of his personality through regular practice. 

 This self-motivational technique is thus very helpful in transformation of the client suffering from negative self-talk. 

Stress Inoculation Technique (SIT)

Stress Inoculation Technique is meant to prepare the individual in advance to handle stressful events successfully. Just as vaccination inoculates an individual against the diseases, stress inoculation also helps to inoculate the person against the stress he may be facing or may face in future. In this technique, patients are educated about stressful situations and the general nature of stress, and the steps that may be taken to avoid stress in future. In SIT, the clients become more aware of what things are cues for fear and anxiety. They learn how to detect and identify such cues as early as they appear so that necessary coping skills can be put in immediate action. In this process, a patient learns to tackle anxiety and stress at the earliest possible so that the further damage can be controlled.

Self Management Techniques: 

In this technique, an individual is encouraged to use his own behavioral skills to maintain self-motivation and achieve personal goals. For example, if a person smokes too much, does not exercise or has difficulty in controlling his anger, the goal of this technique to make him control or manage his actions.

It has been observed that behavioral deficiencies occur when a person does not engage in a positive and desirable behavior frequently enough. The client is taught in this technique to identify, monitor and bring changes in his behavioral deficits or behavioral excesses so that it results in desired behavioral modifications.

Three strategies can be used in Self Management Technique: 

(i)    Environmental Strategies 

(ii)    Behavioral Strategies 

(iii)    Cognitive Strategies

(i) Environmental Strategies: This strategy involves changing the place, groups or time or situations where one experiences problematic behavior, for example, if a person behaves in an erratic manner when socializing with a particular social group or people, he should avoid being in that group or with such people so as to change his environment.

(ii) Behavioral strategies: One important strategy is modify problematic behaviour is to use reinforcers for good or desirable behaviour. Some examples are: (a) Placing visual clues or reminders about what a person wants to achieve, (b) Developing reinforcers or rewards for engaging in desirable behaviour and punishment for undesirable behaviour, (c) Engaging in an alternative or positive behaviour when you are inclined to engage in an undesirable behaviour, (d) Finding creating ways to make desirable behaviour more enjoyable, rewarding and convenient.

(iii) Cognitive Strategies: These strategies involve charging one's thought or beliefs about one’s own behavior, for example, using self instructions to encourage oneself about what to do and how to do it, using self-praise to commend oneself for engaging in a desirable behaviour, and thinking about the benefits of reaching one's goal.

Intelligent test can be defined as a test to evaluate general level of cognitive functions and intellectual ability.

To obtain an IQ score, the examiner divides a person's mental age (obtained through different tests) by his/her chronological age and then multiplies it by 100 to obtain his/her IQ.

However, as we know, mental growth stops at one point or the other in our life as we start growing. Therefore, our IQ score may start declining with age. So, for all practical purposes, IQ means mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100 within the people of same age group.

History of Measurement of Intelligence

Biologist Sir Galton made a beginning with intelligence measurement tests. He thought that the intelligence could he measured by tests of sensory discrimination. He believed, for example, that the ability to discriminate heat, cold and pain may distinguish an intelligent person from a mentally retarded person.

Mekeen Cattel used the term 'Mental Test' for the first time in 1890. He devised tests covering muscular strength, speed of movement, sensitivity to pain, and memory etc. to measure the intellectual level of a person.

Alfred Binet's Contribution

French government had engaged Afred Binet to devise a diagnostic test to identify children with mental retardation. Therefore, together with a physician named Simon, he created a Binet-Simon Scale in 1905. This test had 30 pass/ fail items. Each item required mental and physical capabilities to complete the task.

Binet-Simon test was revised in 1908 but there were so significant changes. In 1911, it was again revised but the test was also extended to adults as it was previously only for judging mental retardation amongst children.

Abilities covered by the 1911 edition of Binet Simon test were language, auditory processing, visual processing, learning memory and problem solving. In 1916, M. Terman of Stanford University began revisions of this test and it came to be known as Stamford-Binet Intelligence Scale.

World War I and Tests for Army Personnel:

In 1914, American Psychological Association laid by Robert Yerkes devised intelligence tests for classification and selection of army personnel. Two tests were devised: (1) Army Alpha and (2) Army Beta. Both were group tests, the first was language test and second non-language performance test.

Revisions of Stanford Binet Test:

In 1937, Terman again revised Stamford Binet test and it came to be known as the Revised Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale. This revision included two alternate forms, L form and M form, each with 129 items.

Third revision of the Stamford Binet Test happened in 1960 after Terman's death and it was improved upon by Merill. It was called the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale Form L-M. It included a deviation IQ with normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 16. This version included 142 important items from the previous edition of this test.

In 1986, Stanford Binet test was revised for the fourth time without any significant or crucial changes. SB-5 or the fifth edition of the Stanford Binet test was released in 2003. This edition is presently in vogue. This test is used to measure intellectual ability in individuals between the ages of  2 to 89 years. It contains 10 of sub-scales. The three arrears covered by SB-5 are: 

(1) General Cognitive functioning, 

(2) Verbal and non-verbal intelligence, and 

(3) 5 CHC factors i.e. Fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory.

A person suffering from Mental Filter Distortion focuses only on negative aspects of a situation whenever he thinks through a mental filter, and filters out all of positive aspects. It can be said that the people with this form of negative thinking often see their glass as being half empty rather than half full in any situation. It is a sort of cognitive distortion. There is no foolproof way to get rid of mental filter to prevent negative thinking but building awareness around such negative thinking by practicing meditation can be great help.

 Age, health and physical/mental/ emotional social development of a child are the factors which can make him vulnerable. 

Counselling for Children with Disability:

A ‘child with disability’ means a child with long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairment which hinders his full and effective participation in society equally with others.

Counselling is necessary for children with disability as they have following special needs:

1. To gain coping skills in life 

2. To gain self-regulation 

3.To improve self esteem

4. To understand their strengths and weaknesses

5. To learn social skills and social thinking 

6.    To make the child a better functioning child.

Importance & Role of Counselling for disabled children:

1. Counselling can help in identifying the disabled children who need special education. It can also help in coping with the child's problem of integrating with his group. Some children with learning disability may look as if they are perfectly normal. Identifying and dealing with such children can be ably done by counselling. 

2. Counselling can identify the challenges faced by children facing physical and emotional disabilities, and advise the steps necessary to meet such challenges.

3. Counselling can help the disabled children improve their time management and organizational skills.

4. Counselling can also help in designing a tailor-made programme suitable for each individual child. Counsellor can also evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each such programme and make remedial changes. 

5. Counselling can help the disabled children in improving their social, communication and other interpersonal skills. This goal can be better achieved by one-to-one counselling.

6. Counselling can help the disabled child gain self-confidence and self esteem.

7. Counselling can be extremely useful in guiding the parents of the disabled child as to how to treat the child physically, socially and emotionally.  

8. In a nut-shell, a counselor can guide the disabled child as to how to deal with the people around him.

Goals of Therapy:

Main goal of the RET (or REBT) is to rid the patients of their present negative philosophies, and replace them with more realistic and flexible philosophies as a means of finding happiness. The therapy is based on the principle that a person is responsible for his emotions as well as actions, and also that he can overcome his negative responses by thinking in a more realistic way. In a nutshell, REBT helps people recognize and alter irrational beliefs and negative thinking patterns in order to overcome psychological problems and mental distress.

Role of REBT:

REBT is best for the patients who want proactive and present-oriented treatment as a means of coping with the difficulties they are currently facing in their life. It can work for anyone facing mental problems like fear, guilt, depression, hostility and addiction etc. This therapy offers target solution for those who believe in self help as a main solution to their problems.

Techniques of Rational Emotive Therapy:

The therapy distinguishes between these two types of problems: (1) Practical problems involving unwanted situations, our own negative behaviors and unfair treatment we receive from others, (2) Emotional problems which are the tendencies which make us get upset when practical problems occur. 

As a technique, the client is asked to identify their irrational philosophies which are in the form of a MUST. There are three types of MUSTS.

The first is the demand on yourself, like “I must look smartly dressed, otherness I will not be acceptable in society". Second is the demand on others, like, my friends MUST help me in business if I am to be successful. Third is the demand on situation like, it must not rain on the day I am planning to start my journey, etc. The therapy teaches a person to shed these MUSTs and rather turn them into his preferences. This technique can be represented in the form of ABC model.' 'A' is the Activating event, 'B' is the Belief the patient has about this event, whether rational or irrational. 'C' is the Consequence of this belief which includes behavioural and emotional responses and further thoughts in this respect. By this therapy, we modify the Irrational Beliefs into Rational Beliefs, and thereby change the consequences too.

Mindfulness has following components: 

(i) Clear and single-minded awareness – This implies that at the stage of mindfulness, your awareness is totally focused and not wavering to different objects.

(ii) Awareness is about what happens to us – The focus is on self only.

(iii) Awareness is also about what happens within us – meaning that the focus is on what goes through our mind. 

(iv) At the successive moments of perception – The awareness is constant with our perception.

The philosophy behind mindfulness is that if we remain focused on the present moment, it saves us from the agonies or ill-happenings of the past, and worries and anxieties of the future.

It is widely believed that the tradition of mindfulness has roots in Buddhism though its reference exists in traditional Indian texts too.

Dimensions of Mindfulness: 

A person practicing mindfulness may have following experiences during moments of mindfulness: 

(i) Non-judgmental: Mindfulness involves witnessing passing thoughts and present moment without evaluating them or putting them in any category. This develops a quality of being non-judgmental in its practitioner.

(ii) Non striving: The practitioner of mindfulness does not try to achieve any specific goals and hence learns not to get attached to materialistic objects.

(iii) Acceptance: The person practicing mind-fullness learns being open and accepting. 

(iv) Patience: Mindfulness practitioner learns patience with himself, people around him, situations around him at the present moment. 

(v) Openness: Being open-minded is outcome of practice of mindfulness. 

(vi) Letting Go: The person practicing mindfulness learns not to get attached to any thought, feeling or experience. 

(vii) Gentleness and Generosity: Practice of mindfulness leads to feelings of gentleness and generosity is its practitioner.

(viii) Empathy and Gratitude: Mindfulness leads to the development of qualities of empathy and gratitude in a person practicing it.